CRM & aeronautical decision making for general aviation pilots

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. The FAA formalized ADM training in Advisory Circular 60-22, recognizing that the majority of general aviation accidents result from poor pilot judgment rather than mechanical failure or lack of stick-and-rudder skill.

ADM is not about following rules mechanically — it is about developing the ability to recognize a deteriorating situation before it becomes an emergency. The accident record shows a consistent pattern: pilots who continue VFR into IMC, who attempt takeoffs in conditions beyond their skill level, or who press on when multiple factors suggest turning back. In virtually every case, the pilot had an opportunity to make a different decision that would have prevented the accident.

The FAA Airman Certification Standards (ACS) for every certificate level now include specific ADM and risk management tasks. Examiners evaluate not just whether a pilot can fly the maneuvers, but whether the pilot demonstrates sound judgment throughout the practical test.

The DECIDE model provides a six-step framework for structured decision making during flight. It works by breaking a complex, time-pressured decision into manageable steps:

Detect that a change has occurred. Something is different from what was expected — weather is worse than forecast, an instrument reading is abnormal, a passenger is feeling ill, the fuel burn is higher than planned.

Estimate the need to react. How urgent is this change? Does it require immediate action, or can you monitor the situation? What happens if you do nothing?

Choosea desirable outcome. What is the safest resolution? This step focuses on the goal, not the method. "Land at the nearest suitable airport" is a desired outcome.

Identify actions to achieve that outcome. What specific steps will get you to the desired result? Divert to an alternate, descend below the weather, return to the departure airport, declare an emergency.

Do the necessary action. Execute your plan. This is where many pilots hesitate — the decision has been made, but ego, optimism bias, or sunk-cost thinking prevents them from acting. Act decisively.

Evaluate the effect of your action. Did the situation improve? If not, cycle back through the model. The situation is dynamic, and your first action may not fully resolve it.

The IMSAFE checklist is a preflight self-assessment tool that addresses the pilot as a component of the system — one that is often the weakest link:

• Illness: Am I suffering from any illness or symptom that could impair my performance? Even a mild cold can cause sinus blockage during descent, and over-the-counter medications often have side effects incompatible with flying.
• Medication: Am I taking any prescription or over-the-counter medication? 14 CFR 91.17 addresses medication use. Many common drugs (antihistamines, sleep aids, some pain relievers) are disqualifying. When in doubt, consult an Aviation Medical Examiner (AME).
• Stress: Am I under psychological pressure from work, finances, relationships, or life events? Stress narrows attention, degrades multi-tasking ability, and increases the likelihood of fixation errors.
• Alcohol: Have I consumed alcohol within the preceding 8 hours? Is my blood alcohol level below 0.04%? 14 CFR 91.17 establishes the 8-hour and 0.04% rules, but impairment can persist well beyond 8 hours after heavy drinking. The practical rule: 24 hours from bottle to throttle for any significant consumption.
• Fatigue: Have I had adequate sleep? Am I rested enough for this flight? Fatigue impairs judgment and reaction time as severely as alcohol. A pilot who has been awake for 17 hours performs equivalently to someone with a 0.05% blood alcohol level.
• Emotion/Eating: Am I emotionally upset or distracted? Have I eaten adequately? Low blood sugar causes irritability, difficulty concentrating, and impaired decision making. Strong emotions (anger, grief, anxiety) reduce situational awareness.

Beyond IMSAFE, every pilot should establish personal minimums — weather, currency, and complexity limits that are more conservative than the regulatory minimums. A private pilot might set personal minimums of 3,000-foot ceilings and 5-mile visibility even though VFR only requires 1,000 feet and 3 miles in Class E. Personal minimums should tighten when you are fatigued, rusty, or in an unfamiliar aircraft, and can relax as experience builds.

TEM is a framework developed from airline operations research and adapted for general aviation. It organizes safety thinking into three layers: threats, errors, and undesired aircraft states.

Threatsare events or conditions outside the pilot's direct control that increase operational complexity and require attention. Examples include adverse weather, unfamiliar airports, high-density traffic, aircraft malfunctions, and passenger distractions. Threats are anticipated during preflight planning and managed during flight.

Errors are pilot actions or inactions that lead to deviations from the intended course of action. Errors are normal — every pilot makes them. The goal is not to eliminate errors but to detect and manage them before they produce consequences. Common GA errors include altitude deviations, missed radio calls, incorrect frequency selection, and checklist omissions.

Undesired aircraft states are the result of unmanaged threats and untrapped errors. These are situations where the aircraft deviates from parameters (wrong altitude, unstabilized approach, low fuel state). The pilot must recognize the undesired state and recover before it leads to an incident or accident.

The TEM model shifts pilot thinking from reactive ("what went wrong?") to proactive ("what could go wrong, and how will I manage it?"). Before every flight, identify the top three threats you expect to encounter and brief yourself on how you will handle them.

The FAA identifies five hazardous attitudes that undermine good ADM. Recognizing these attitudes in yourself is the first step to counteracting them. Each has a specific antidote — a deliberate thought pattern that breaks the dangerous mindset:

Anti-authority— "The rules don't apply to me" or "I know better." Antidote: Follow the rules. They exist because someone learned the lesson the hard way, often fatally.

Impulsivity— "Do something, do it now!" Acting before thinking through consequences. Antidote: Not so fast. Think first. Unless the aircraft is on fire or in a stall, you almost always have more time than you think.

Invulnerability— "It won't happen to me." Believing that accidents only happen to other pilots. Antidote: It could happen to me. The accident record is full of experienced pilots who thought the same thing.

Macho— "I can do it. Watch this." Taking unnecessary risks to prove ability. Antidote: Taking chances is foolish. The cemetery is full of pilots who proved they could do it — once.

Resignation— "What's the point? I can't make a difference." Giving up when faced with adversity. Antidote: I am not helpless. I can make a difference. Fly the aircraft until it stops moving.

Crew Resource Management was developed for multi-crew airline operations, but its principles apply directly to single-pilot GA flying. The "crew" in single-pilot CRM includes every resource available to the pilot:

ATC: Controllers are trained professionals who can provide vectors, traffic advisories, weather updates, and priority handling. Flight following (VFR radar advisories) is free and significantly enhances situational awareness. Never hesitate to ask ATC for help or declare an emergency when the situation warrants it.

Flight service: 1800wxbrief.com and Flight Service provide updated weather, pilot reports (PIREPs), NOTAMs, and can relay information to ATC. Filing and updating flight plans through Flight Service ensures someone knows your route and expected arrival time.

Autopilot: If the aircraft is equipped with an autopilot, use it to reduce workload during high-task-loading phases. An autopilot maintaining heading and altitude frees the pilot to navigate, communicate, and manage systems.

Passengers: A briefed passenger can watch for traffic, monitor a radio frequency, read a checklist, or look up information. Brief passengers on what you need from them before departure.

Technology: EFBs, moving maps, ADS-B weather, and terrain awareness displays are powerful tools for situational awareness. Use them — but verify critical information from primary sources and never let screen fixation replace looking outside the aircraft.